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The First Millenium

And today it is the year 283.

Caius or Gaius (283-296) becomes pope. He outlaws the practice of allowing laymen to become bishops, requiring them to work their way up through a series of offices, including priest. There is slight persecution during his papacy, but he dies a natural death after thirteen years in office.

The Emperor Carus captures the capital of the Persian Empire, but dies suddenly shortly afterward, probably of natural causes. His son Carinus, whom he had left as governor of the western part of the Empire, becomes Emperor. Carinus quickly leads an army into Germany and wins a few small victories, and returns to Rome. He then settles down to a life of debauchery.

But Numerian, the other son of the former Emperor is officially the co-Emperor. He had been with his father when he died, and his troops demand that they return to Europe, forcing Numerian to comply. So, having conquered the Persians, the Romans retreat.
 
Already it is 284 AD.

Rufinus 1 becomes bishop of Byzantium.

Already devastated by the Germans, France faces a new problem. The bagaudae ("fighters") are bands of impoverished peasants, joined by Roman deserters, who begin pillaging isolated areas of France. Resentful of Rome's taxation and lessening of their freedoms, while failing to protect them, they become a major problem.

Slowly making his way back to Rome, the Emperor Numerian dies of natural causes. The troops declare Diocletian, their cavalry commander, as the new Emperor. He publicly murders an opponent and heads towards Rome, where Carinus, the surviving co-Emperor, holds power.
 
Would you believe it? It's the year 285 already.

Anthony the Great founds the monastic movement. Although not the first monk, he insisted on virtual isolation, with food being brought by his followers. He suffered from severe hallucinations, and his followers were fascinated by the advice he gave.

Carinus, who had been co-Emperor since his father's death, faces Diocletian, who had been declared Emperor by his troops, in Serbia. Carinus has the larger force, but he had been seducing the wives of his officers, and many of them hated him. Inexperienced in combat, he is easily defeated, his officers kill him, and Diocletian is now the unchallenged Emperor. Carinus's troops swear their loyalty to Diocletian, and the Crisis of the Third Century is over.

The Emperor Diocletian declares Maximian, one of his officers, as junior co-Emperor. Heading into France, Maximian easily ends the bandits' uprising.

At the same time, Emperor Diocletian leads an army into Germany, driving out the Sarmatians, a people centered in modern Iran and southern Russia.

Diocletian heavily favors big government. He creates a vast and efficient bureaucracy, with administrative centers scattered throughout the Empire. He reforms tax laws, making them higher but more fair.
 
Welcome to 286.

Carausius, a distinguished military commander, had been made commander of the British fleet. Assigned to protect the English Channel, it turns out that he had been allowing pirates to make successful raids. Then, when he defeated the pirates, he would keep much of the loot. Learning that the Emperor Diocletian had sentenced him to death (without a trial) he declares himself Emperor.

To Rome's dismay, all three legions in Britain, along with all their auxiliary troops, immediately side with Carausius. A legion in northwestern Gaul also sides with him. Without a fleet to invade Britain, Rome can do nothing. With peace ensured, Carausius builds a stable, successful government that lasts for years.

Having appointed Maximian junior co-Emperor, DIocletian divides the Empire in two. He does this to make administration more efficient.

Crispin and Crispinian, twin brothers. had fled to the southern Netherlands to escape persecution. Working as cobblers by night, they preached during the day, winning so many converts that the angry governor has them tortured and beheaded.
 
Welcome to 287.

It is a "mystery of history": Why did Britain, including its Roman troops, turn so rapidly to Carausius, commander of the British fleet? Carausius might have been a successful general, and the Emperor Diocletian had been afraid of his popularity, so Diocletian put him in charge of the fleet. Also, Britain had not been invaded by the Germans, and they might have resented having to support Rome. Regardless, Carausius begins issuing coins commemorating himself. Crude at first, within a few years, his coins are better quality, with more silver, than Roman coins.

Rome begins a new dating method, called the "indiction." An indiction is a period of years, and certain events , such as tax payments, must take place in the first year, the second year, etc. A century later, all indictions were for fifteen years.

Learning that Sebastian, commander of the Praetorian Guard, is a Christian, Emperor Diocletian orders him executed. At about this time, Maurice, commander of the Theban Legion, refused to kill Christians in France and was executed.

Rome signs a peace treaty with the Persian Empire. Meanwhile, Rome helps Tiradates the Great, king of Armenia, drive the Persians out of Armenia. The two nations form a close alliance.
 
And now it is 288.

The Raetians were a fierce Alpine tribe that lived in eastern Switzerland. Their southern border was part of the northern border of Italy. Governed by a Roman legion, they rebel, and the Emperor Diocletian personally leads an army that defeats them.

In France, Maximian, the junior co-Emperor, builds a fleet to fight Carausius. Rome wants Britain and northwestern France back, and they are worried about the popularity and stability of Carausius's government.
 
289 is already here. It's another quiet year.

Diocletian wins several small victories in Germany.

Meanwhile, Maximian can't invade Britain, because he loses his fleet. There is serious debate about what happened. In order to ensure stability, Diocetian had declared himself the personal representative of Jupiter, and Maximian to be the personal representative of Hercules. By claiming to be appointed by the gods, the two gained an authority that usurpers could not have. The failure of Maximian would have discredited both of them. It is possible that Maximian's fleet was defeated by the more-experienced British fleet, and this would have caused panic in the western Empire. At any rate, Diocletian hurries back to Rome.
 
Welcome to 290.

Physically and mentally handicapped, Emperor Hui is unable to stop the infighting that leads to the Rebellion of the Eight Princes. Northern China is devastated before the rebellion is finally ended sixteen years later. Hui had tried to ensure peace by handing out authority to members of his family, cutting other dynasties out of power. But now, incompetent but powerful family members begin fighting for control of the Empire.

The Emperor Diocletian meets with Maximian in Milan, in northern Italy. They spend a great deal of time making public appearances, and they receive a delegation from the Senate. But Diocletian has made clear that he, not the Senate, rules the Empire. He deliberately does not appear in Rome. Maximian is ordered to build another fleet for the invasion of Britain, and the two discuss battle strategies against the Germans.
 
Let's see what happens in 291.

Rome signs peace treaties with Axum and Nubia, two powerful kingdoms south of Egypt.

In China, the War of the Eight Princes begins. In a complex power struggle, various family members assassinated each other as they strove to control the incapacitated Emperor. Finally, the Imperial Guard assassinated its way into power. Eight different princes rebelled, fighting the central government and each other, until only one prince survived. Northern China was heavily depopulated before it was over.
 
Let's see if 292 is better than last year.

Constantius 1, also known as Chlorus the Pale, is given command of Britain and Gaul. He divorces his wife Helen, a Christian, who is the mother of their son Constantine, a future Emperor. Although it is couched in political terms, Maximian, junior co-Emperor, has taken a demotion. The Emperor Diocletian plans to divide the Empire into four parts, cutting Maximian's area in half.

The Roman General Achilleus is proclaimed emperor in Alexandria. He actually does a good job as ruler of Egypt for two years.

A "stele" is a stone structure built as a monument. It often is covered with words, but it usually has carved images on it. This year, the Maya of southern Mexico and Central America build a stele that has survived to the present day.
 
Welcome to 293 AD!

Probus becomes bishop of Byzantium. Little is known about him.

The Emperor Diocletian officially divides the Empire into four parts, and Chlorus the Pale gets one of them. Having divorced his wife last year, he marries Maximian's stepdaughter and invades Germany. He captures a large piece of Frankish territory, but the area is so depopulated that he allows the Franks to stay, as long as they submit to Roman authority. This will come up later: large parts of the Roman Empire are inhabited by Germans who have no loyalty to Rome.

Heading west, Chlorus retakes northern Francefrom the usurper Carausius, who still retains control of Britain. Carausius is having a bad year: the Franks who were defeated by Chlorus were allied with him. But Allectus, the treasurer of Britain solves the problem: he assassinates Carausius and declares himself Emperor.

It's a rough year for the Persian Empire. Having lost Armenia to the Romans, Emperor Bahram II dies, leaving his son Bahram III in charge. His grand uncle, Narseh of Persia quickly deposes him and becomes Emperor. An experienced politician and the son of a previous Persian Emperor, Narseh inherits problems with Armenia, which keeps making incursions into Persian territory. Conquered by the Romans and made a Roman ally, Armenia has no problem with pushing around the weak and troubled Persian Empire.
 
294 was a very boring year.

Galerius, a former herdsman who had become a successful soldier, had been given command of 1/4 of the Empire, and had also been given the Emperor Diocletian's daughter as wife. He hurries to Egypt, where two cities are in revolt.

Narseh, the new ruler of the Persian Empire, sends the customary gifts to Rome. But within his empire, he is quietly destroying all evidence of his immediate predecessors (who had submitted to Rome). He identifies himself with the warrior emperors of a few decades ago who had seized large areas of the Roman Empire.

Overall, however, the Empire's economy is improving, and DIocletian remains popular with the people.
 
295 is another slow year.

The city of Petra is re-added to the province of Palestine, where Christianity is practiced secretly.

Having traveled to the eastern parts of the Empire, the Emperor Diocletian returns to Germany. He builds several forts in Romania, Hungary, and Serbia, and he wins a few minor battles against the Germans.

Galerius, one of the four tetrarchs who ruled the Empire, had successfully put down a rebellion in Egypt, when Persia invaded Armenia. Narseh, the new warlike emperor of the Persian empire, had taken enough of Armenia's incursions and insults. Rome had signed a peace treaty with Persia, and Armenia had been made an independent nation that was subject to Roman influence. Galerius hurries to the scene.
 
Let's see how things go in 296.

Marcellinus becomes Pope. He later offers incense to the gods to save his life. Varying tales say that he then disappeared, while others say that he repented shortly afterward and was martyred.

Galerius the tetrarch leads an army against the Persians and suffers a massive defeat. The Emperor Diocletian doesn't demote him, but Diocletian makes it clear that Galerius gets all the blame.

Maximian, the junior co-Emperor, gets large areas of Germany under Roman control.

The Romans finally manage to build a fleet and invade Britain. They easily retake the island, and Allectus the usurper, is killed.
 
297 is a decent year for Rome.

They capture part of the Persian Empire, but the Emperor Diocletian give it back in return for Armenia. Rome and Persia then agree to a new peace treaty.

Maximian, the junior co-Emperor, puts down all a rebellion on Africa's northwest coast.

But then Demetius leads another revolt in Egypt, with Alexandria as his capital. Emperor Diocletian personally leads an invasion, rapidly securing all of Egypt except Alexandria itself.

Diocletian continues his long-term plan of fortifying the entire length of the Danube River in Germany. Romans are busy building forts on both sides of the Danube that will eventually make it difficult for the Germans to make large troop movements.
 
Welcome to the year 298!

Tetrarch Chlorus the Pale defeats the Germans along the Rhine River. Rome had been building a series of forts along both sides, and Rome now controls the entire river.

The Emperor Diocletian orders all Christians expelled from the Roman army. Different tetrarchs enforce it with different degrees of severity. Diocletian makes peace with various Black African tribes, yielding some land and even making them an annual payment, thus securing the Empire's southeastern borders.

Tetrarch Glaerius wins two major victories over the Persians, driving them out of Armenia. Raised and educated in Rome, Tiridates the Great is appointed king of Armenia. He strongly enforces Roman law and becomes a trusted Roman ally.

In the Orient, the manufacture of cultured silk is becoming a major industry.
 
And now it is 299!

The Tetrarch Galerius has recovered from his humiliating defeat by the Persians a few years ago. He devastates the Carpians, a group of tribes in modern Romania, and they are never a threat to the Empire again. He forcibly relocates many of them to Hungary, giving them farmland and settling them down as tax-payers.

The Empress Jia Nanfeng is regarded as one of the great villains of Chinese history. Married to the mentally disabled Emperor, she had been executing rivals for years, and at one time had actually controlled the government. With the Rebellion of the Eight Princes still in progress, she had hampered competent leaders and had gradually been removed from power. Realizing that the crown prince was about to be made more powerful, she frames him for treason and he is demoted to "commoner."
 
It's the year 300, and welcome to the beginning of a big new century. So much is happening that we'll be staying on the year 300 for a few days. We'll start with the Americas:

American Indians begin building effigy mounds around the Great Lakes. Small numbers of Inuit (Eskimos) are migrating east from Alaska across northern Canada. But the cold weather hinders farming, and the Canadian Indian population remains sparse.

The population of the United States is increasing, as the bow and arrow make hunting more efficient. They excel in chemical science and agricultural science, practice strong democracy and resolve most conflicts without warfare. But without horses or cattle, the American Indians cannot harness animal labor; nowhere in the Americas does anyone invent the wheel.

About this time, the Classic Period of Mayan Culture begins in southern Mexico and Central America. The Maya start using cities mainly for religious purposes, and most of their people live outside the cities. This continues for about six centuries, when the Maya begin abandoning their cities, as they turned to other religions from northern Mexico.

A "jungle" is a tropical rain forest. There is too much rainfall to allow efficient farming. And the Maya's biggest cities were usually built in jungles, which could not support more than thirty people per square mile. Yet, this sparsely-populated civilization developed advanced science and the most advanced system of writing in the Americas.

About this time, the Chavin civilization in Peru collapses. Relying heavily on hallucinatory drugs, their influence had steadily dwindled and they are finally absorbed by others. Among their competitors are the Moche, whose civilization is so advanced that they have trade routes with the Mayans.
 
Welcome back to the year 300.

In Japan, the Yamoto Clan begins claiming to be descended from the sun goddess. Sixteen centuries later, they will lead Japan into World War 2. But at the time, Japan is only one of many small kingdoms on the four main islands of modern Japan.

At about this time, the Yayoi Period of Japan ends. The Yayoi had introduced advanced pottery, which helped advanced industry and trade. The Kofun Period, which began fifty years earlier, now becomes dominant. Strong military clans rule the various city states, often fighting each other. They seek alliances with China and the three Korean kingdoms.

The Armenians kill the last of the lions in their area. Formerly roaming southwestern Asia, including Israel, lions are unable to compete with the spreading human population. Except for India, the Asian lion becomes virtually extinct.
 
If you look at a map of modern Africa, you'll see that the Red Sea runs along Africa's northeast coast. Egypt is in Africa's northeast corner, Sudan is south of Egypt, and Ethiopia is south and east of Sudan.

In ancient times, the African kingdom of Nubia bordered the Red Sea. At its height, Nubia ran the entire length of the Red Sea, controlling the eastern halves of Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia. Call "Cush" in Hebrew, it is translated "Ethiopia" in the King James Version. At one point, Cush was powerful enough to invade Old Testament Judea.

According to some historians, Nubia still exists, and is the modern nation of Ethiopia. But the Egyptians drove the Nubians out, and over a period of two thousand years, Nubia broke up into various kingdoms.

In the first century BC, the city of Aksum on the Red Sea became prosperous enough to expand into the Aksumite Empire, controlling the area of Ethiopia. Some historians maintain that this is the beginning of modern Ethiopia. But the Aksumite Empire quickly broke up, and the city of Aksum was conquered and re-conquered by various African kingdoms.

In the second century AD, the city of Aksum became prosperous as it gained control over trade routes to the Red Sea. The city gradually became independent and expanded into a tiny independent kingdom by the year 300. ALL historians agree that the kingdom of Aksum still exists, and is today the nation of Ethiopia. During the entire fourth century, the most important event in Africa will be the steady expansion of Ethiopia from a tiny kingdom into a powerful nation.

One of the oldest nations in the world, Ethiopia has gone through many boundary changes, and, in oddly enough, the city of Aksum is no longer part of Ethiopia.
 
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