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2) Mesopotamian Religion​

Historical periods​

The periods in the development of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion may be divided as follows:

1. The oldest period was from c. 3500 B.C.E. to the time of Hammurabi (c. 1700 B.C.E.). During this period, few historical records have been preserved. The deities later known as the Anunnaki may have been worshiped individually in various population centers. As major centers came to dominate the region, their deities came to be more universally recognized and to assimilate the characteristics of some of the lesser gods. Several major deities arose, such as Innana/Ishtar, Anu, Enki, Enlil, and others. The great city of Uruk emerged as a major religious center. Other centers included Nippur, Ur, Sippar, Eridu, and Agade. The greatest religious-literary event of the era was the creation of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the world's oldest surviving epic poem.

- The deities later known as the Anunnaki may have been worshiped individually in various population centers!

- As major centers came to dominate the region, their deities came to be more universally recognized and to assimilate the characteristics of some of the lesser gods!

- Several major deities arose, such as Innana/Ishtar, Anu, Enki, Enlil, and others!

- The great city of Uruk emerged as a major religious center!

- Other centers included Nippur, Ur, Sippar, Eridu, and Agade!

- The greatest religious-literary event of the era was the creation of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the world's oldest surviving epic poem!

 

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3) Mesopotamian Religion​

2. The post-Hammurabic period in Babylonia ranged between 1700-1365 B.C.E. Hammurabi united the Euphratean states, and the god Marduk began to emerge as the supreme deity, though by no means the only god. His heroic rise to power and recognition as the king of the gods is dramatically portrayed in the myth known as Enuma Elish.

- Marduk became the supreme deity and king of the gods!

 

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4) Mesopotamian Religion​

3. The Assyrian period was between c. 1365 B.C.E. and the destruction of Nineveh in 612 B.C.E. The Mesopotamian pantheon remained little changed during this period, although at times the supreme deity was seen to be Ashur rather than Marduk. Ishtar remained the most important female deity. Astral theology emerges with Marduk or Ashur as the central divinity who assigned the various other gods their respective places in the universe.

- At times the supreme deity was seen to be Ashur rather than Marduk!

- Ishtar remained the most important female deity!

- Astral theology emerges with Marduk or Ashur as the central divinity who assigned the various other gods their respective places in the universe!

 

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5) Mesopotamian Religion​

4. The neo-Babylonian period began with Nabopolassar (625 B.C.E.-605 B.C.E.) and ended with Cyrus's conquest of Babylon and Babylonia in 539 B.C.E. By the sixth century B.C.E., the gods Anu, Enlil, and Ea (Enki) formed a triad ruling the universe, and a well developed astral theology had emerged, related to today's astrological systems. Marduk remained central, and it was to him that Cyrus dedicated his policy of increased religious freedom, supporting the return of plundered religious items to their respective sanctuaries, and the rebuilding of local or national temples, including the Temple of Jerusalem.

- By the sixth century B.C.E., the gods Anu, Enlil, and Ea (Enki) formed a triad ruling the universe!

- A well developed astral theology emerged, related to today's astrological systems!

- Marduk remained central!

- it was to Marduk that Cyrus dedicated his policy of increased religious freedom, supporting the return of plundered religious items to their respective sanctuaries, and the rebuilding of local or national temples, including the Temple of Jerusalem!

 

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6) Mesopotamian Religion​

Early Mesopotamian religion​

As outsiders looking in on an ancient civilization whose diverse religious traditions died out long ago, scholars have struggled to construct a comprehensive picture of Mesopotamian religion without resorting to a great deal of speculation or oversimplification. This problem led one expert in the field, A. Leo Oppenheim, to conclude that a history of Mesopotamian religion "should not be written."[1] For one thing, the sources are relatively scarce, and they are scattered over a wide area and an even wider span of time. What may be a true statement about Mesopotamian religion in one period may thus be misleading when applied to a later time. A god that was a local deity prior to 2,000 B.C.E. may become a major regional god later on, and it is difficult to say with certainty how far a deity's influence was felt until a relatively late period. The study of Mesopotamian religion is also complicated, especially in its early phase, by the fact that similar deities are often given different names in the Sumerian and Akkadian languages. Non-experts have trouble realizing that Inanna and Ishtar, or Enki and Ea, are actually names of just two, not four deities, for example. In addition, over the period of millennia, as the gods evolved from local deities to more universal ones, they sometimes took on the attributes of older gods or of each other. Thus, even the character of the gods often involves considerable speculation.
- What may be a true statement about Mesopotamian religion in one period may thus be misleading when applied to a later time!

- A god that was a local deity prior to 2,000 B.C.E. may become a major regional god later on, and it is difficult to say with certainty how far a deity's influence was felt until a relatively late period!

- The study of Mesopotamian religion is also complicated, especially in its early phase, by the fact that similar deities are often given different names in the Sumerian and Akkadian languages!

- Non-experts have trouble realizing that Inanna and Ishtar, or Enki and Ea, are actually names of just two, not four deities, for example!

- In addition, over the period of millennia, as the gods evolved from local deities to more universal ones, they sometimes took on the attributes of older gods or of each other!

 

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7) Mesopotamian Religion​

A divine genealogy​

The early deities of Mesopotamia were later referred to as the Anunnaki gods—a group of Sumerian and Akkadian deities related to, and in some cases overlapping with, the Annuna (the "Fifty Great Gods"). The head of the Anunnaki council, in later mythology, was Anu. The Anunnaki were seen as the children of Anu (heaven) and Ki (earth), brother and sister gods, themselves the children of Anshar and Kishar (Skypivot and Earthpivot, the Celestial poles). Anshar and Kishar in turn were the children of Lahm and Lahmu ("the muddy ones"). The parents of Lahm and Lahmu were Apsû (fresh water) and Tiamat (salt water). In the Enuma Elish, Tiamat is the sea goddess, personified as a female sea monster and an embodiment of primordial chaos. She gives birth to the first generation of gods; but she later makes war upon them and is split in two by the storm-god Marduk, who uses her body to form the heavens and the earth.

- The early deities of Mesopotamia were later referred to as the Anunnaki gods—a group of Sumerian and Akkadian deities related to, and in some cases overlapping with, the Annuna (the "Fifty Great Gods")!

- The head of the Anunnaki council, in later mythology, was Anu!

- The Anunnaki were seen as the children of Anu (heaven) and Ki (earth), brother and sister gods, themselves the children of Anshar and Kishar (Skypivot and Earthpivot, the Celestial poles)!

- Anshar and Kishar in turn were the children of Lahm and Lahmu ("the muddy ones")!

- The parents of Lahm and Lahmu were Apsû (fresh water) and Tiamat (salt water)!

- In the Enuma Elish, Tiamat is the sea goddess, personified as a female sea monster and an embodiment of primordial chaos!

- She gives birth to the first generation of gods!

- But she later makes war upon them and is split in two by the storm-god Marduk, who uses her body to form the heavens and the earth!

 

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8) Mesopotamian Religion​

A divine genealogy​

However, the text of Enuma Elish is relatively late. It is difficult to know much about how the Anunnaki may have been conceived of or worshiped in earlier centuries. Moreover, although many early Mesopotamian religious temples and monuments have been discovered, texts and inscriptions are relatively rare. Among the religious texts that have been discovered, three types have been identified: Prayers, rituals, and mythologies. Temples and monuments also describe something of the religious culture and practice, while icons and other art elaborate on religious ritual and mythology.

There is evidence that religious temples and rituals played an important part in Mesopotamian life quite early, preceding even the advent of writing. Temples normally occupied the central and highest ground in a settlement. They possessed the town's most sophisticated and high-quality artifacts.

- Among the religious texts that have been discovered, three types have been identified: Prayers, rituals, and mythologies!

- Temples and monuments also describe something of the religious culture and practice, while icons and other art elaborate on religious ritual and mythology!

 

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9) Mesopotamian Religion​

Uruk​

Uruk was one of the oldest and most important cities of ancient Sumer. According to the Sumerian king list, Uruk was founded by Enmerkar, who brought the official kingship with him. In the epic, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, he is also said to have constructed the famous temple called E-anna, dedicated to the worship of Inanna (later called Ishtar). Uruk was also the capital city of the probably historical king Gilgamesh, hero of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh. According to the Bible (Genesis 10:10), Erech (Uruk) was the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar.

The White Temple of Uruk contained several separate shrines within the confines of its walls, which measured 400 by 200 meters. In addition to temples, the stepped-stone towers known as ziggurats were also common. One of these is no doubt the basis for the biblical story of the Tower of Babel.

The original seat of the worship of Anu, the Sumerian god of heaven (or sky), may also have been in Uruk. Various other deities were associated with other cities.

- Uruk was founded by Enmerkar!

- He is also said to have constructed the famous temple called E-anna, dedicated to the worship of Inanna (later called Ishtar)!

- Uruk was also the capital city of the probably historical king Gilgamesh, hero of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh!

- According to the Bible (Genesis 10:10), Erech (Uruk) was the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar!

- The original seat of the worship of Anu, the Sumerian god of heaven (or sky), may also have been in Uruk!

- Various other deities were associated with other cities!

 

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10) Mesopotamian Religion​

The impact of Hammurabi​

A sharp distinction can be made between the pre-Hammurabic age and the post-Hammurabic age. Before 1700 B.C.E., there were a number of religious centers in addition to Uruk: Nippur, Kutha (Cuthah), Ur, Sippar, Shirgulla (Lagash), Eridu, and Agade. Each tended to honor a specific god, which was looked upon as the chief deity, around whom were gathered a number of minor deities and with whom there was invariably associated a female consort.

- Before 1700 B.C.E., there were a number of religious centers in addition to Uruk: Nippur, Kutha (Cuthah), Ur, Sippar, Shirgulla (Lagash), Eridu, and Agade!

- Each tended to honor a specific god, which was looked upon as the chief deity, around whom were gathered a number of minor deities and with whom there was invariably associated a female consort!

 

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11) Mesopotamian Religion​

The impact of Hammurabi​

The period around 1700 B.C.E., when Hammurabi effected the union of the Euphratean states, marks the beginning of a new epoch in the religion of the Euphrates valley. In the post-Hammurabic period, the pantheon assumed distinct shapes. The deity Marduk began to emerge as the central and supreme deity, though by no means the only god. Paralleling the centralization of political administration, the gods of the chief religious centers, together with those of the minor local shrines, formed a group around Marduk.

- The deity Marduk began to emerge as the central and supreme deity, though by no means the only god!

- Paralleling the centralization of political administration, the gods of the chief religious centers, together with those of the minor local shrines, formed a group around Marduk!

 

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12) Mesopotamian Religion​

The impact of Hammurabi​

Despite a decided progress toward a monotheistic conception of divine government of the universe, the recognition of a large number of gods and their consorts by the side of Marduk remained firmly embedded doctrine in the Babylonian religion, as it did in the Assyrian faith. An important variation, however, was that the role of the head of the pantheon in Assyria was held by Ashur rather than Marduk.

- we can notice a progress toward a monotheistic conception of divine government of the universe!

- But the recognition of a large number of gods and their consorts by the side of Marduk remained firmly embedded doctrine in the Babylonian religion, as it did in the Assyrian faith!

- An important variation, however, was that the role of the head of the pantheon in Assyria was held by Ashur rather than Marduk!

 

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13) Mesopotamian Religion​

The impact of Hammurabi​

Earlier, the goddess Inanna (or Ishtar) came to be widely honored, as did male counterparts to the goddess, such as Enlil and Enki. However, under Hammurabi's reign, Marduk—the patron deity of the future capital, Babylon—became the clear head of the Babylonian pantheon.

Associated with Marduk was a female consort called Sarpanit, who may have been identified with Ishtar/Inanna in the popular imagination. Grouped around this pair, as princes around a throne, were the chief deities of the older religious centers: Ea and Damkina of Eridu; Nabu and Tashmit of Borsippa; Nergal and Allatu of Kutha; Shamash of Sippar; Sin and Ningal of Ur, as well as other deities whose locations are unknown.

- Under Hammurabi's reign, Marduk—the patron deity of the future capital, Babylon—became the clear head of the Babylonian pantheon!

- Associated with Marduk was a female consort called Sarpanit, who may have been identified with Ishtar/Inanna in the popular imagination!

- Grouped around this pair, as princes around a throne, were the chief deities of the older religious centers:

- Ea and Damkina of Eridu;

- Nabu and Tashmit of Borsippa;

- Nergal and Allatu of Kutha;

- Shamash of Sippar;

- Sin and Ningal of Ur,

- As well as other deities whose locations are unknown!

- Religion was created by demons to serve their own interests!

- Then human leaders adapted it to their own interests!

- Here we get an interesting point!

- We are told about pairs, a god and his goddess!

- We are not told about a god and his goddesses!

- But when demons went down to the earth, they took as many wives as they could!

- And in fact, human kings acted the same way, a king having an official queen and many concubines!

 

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14) Mesopotamian Religion​

The impact of Hammurabi​

In this process of accommodating ancient prerogatives to new conditions, the attributes belonging specifically to the older gods were transferred to Marduk, who thus became an eclectic and many-faceted power, taking on the traits of Enlil (wind, rain, fertility), Enki/Ea (intelligence, water), Shamash (the sun), Nergal (underworld), Adad (storm), and Sin (the moon). The epic mythology contained in the text of Enuma Elish describes the legendary version of Marduk's rise to power over the older gods.

Scholars theorize that the older incantations originally associated with Ea, were re-edited so as to give to Marduk the supreme power over demons, witches, and sorcerers. Hymns and lamentations composed for the cult of Enlil, Shamash, and Adad were transformed into paeans and appeals to Marduk. Meanwhile, the ancient myths arising in the various religious and political centers underwent a similar process of adaptation to changed conditions.

Besides the chief deities and their consorts, various minor ones, representing patron gods of less important localities were added at one time or another to the court of Marduk. Thus the Enuma Elish closes with a list of the myriad divine titles by which Marduk would be known after his great victory. However, some lesser deities still retained their independence. For example, Anu was still the god of the high heavens, and Ishtar still symbolized fertility and vitality in general.

- Marduk became an eclectic and many-faceted power, taking on the traits of Enlil (wind, rain, fertility), Enki/Ea (intelligence, water), Shamash (the sun), Nergal (underworld), Adad (storm), and Sin (the moon!

- Older incantations were re-edited to Marduk!

- Hymns and lamentations were transformed to Marduk!

- Meanwhile, the ancient myths arising in the various religious and political centers underwent a similar process of adaptation to changed conditions!

- Besides the chief deities and their consorts, various minor ones, representing patron gods of less important localities were added at one time or another to the court of Marduk!

 

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15) Mesopotamian Religion​

Rivalry between Ashur and Marduk​

Originally the patron god of the city which bore his name, Ashur came to hold the same position in the north that Marduk occupied in the south. The religious predominance of the great city of Babylon served to gain recognition for Marduk even on the part of the Assyrian rulers. Even when they became predominate, they appointed their sons or brothers governors of Babylonia, and in the long array of titles that the kings gave themselves, a special phrase was set aside to indicate their mastery over Babylonia. To "take the hand of Bel-Marduk" was an essential ritual preliminary to exercising authority in the Euphrates valley.

- We can see similarities between Babylon and Assyria!

- On the North, Assyria and Ashur, on the South, Babylon and Marduk!

 

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16) Mesopotamian Religion​

Rivalry between Ashur and Marduk​

Marduk and Ashur became rivals only when Babylonia came to give the Assyrians trouble. In 689 B.C.E., the Assyrian king Sennacherib, whose patience had been exhausted by the difficulties encountered in maintaining peace in the south, besieged and destroyed the city of Babylon. He brought the city's statue of Marduk to Nineveh, to symbolize the god's subordination. His grandson, Assur-bani-pal, with a view of reestablishing amicable relations, restored the statue to its place in Babylon and performed the time-honored ceremony of "taking the hand of Bel" to demonstrate his homage to the ancient head of the Babylonian pantheon.

- The rivalry between the two Mesopotamian powers led to the destruction of Babylon and the statue of Marduk was sent to Nineveh!

- It was quite usual to act this way!

- We are told about the same in the Bible with the Philistines and the Hebrews!

 

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17) Mesopotamian Religion​

Rivalry between Ashur and Marduk​

Other than the substitution of Ashur for Marduk, the Assyrian pantheon was basically the same as that in the south, though some of the gods were endowed with attributes which differ slightly from their southern counterparts. The war-like nature of the Assyrians was reflected in their conceptions of the gods, who stood by the side of the great protector Ashur. The cult and ritual in the north likewise followed the models set up in the south. Hymns composed for the temples of Babylonia were transferred to Assur, Calah, Harran, Arbela, and Nineveh in the north. Myths and legends also found their way to Assyria in modified form. To all practical purposes, however, the religion of Assyria was very similar with that practiced in the south.

- Both pantheons were similar with some variations!

- It was the same with myths and legends!

 

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18) Mesopotamian Religion​

Triads of gods​

Much like El in Canaan, Anu remained more or less a distant deity during the various periods of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion. By the sixth century B.C.E., Anu's position as the chief god found expression in his portrayal as the first figure of a triad consisting of Anu, Enlil and Ea (also called Enki), who reigned over the heavens, the earth, and the watery expanse, respectively.

- The Triad expressed a geographical division between heavens, earth and watery expanse!

 

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19) Mesopotamian Religion​

Triads of gods​

The mother goddess, Ishtar, remained a powerful presence in her own right, often associated with male deities as their consort or as a fierce warrior and protector. She was frequently associated with Marduk, and still more closely with the chief god of Assyria, Ashur, who occupied in Northern Mesopotamia a position similar to that of Marduk in the south.

- There was also a mother goddess!

 

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20) Mesopotamian Religion​

Triads of gods​

By the side of the first triad, consisting of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, was sometimes found a second triad composed of Shamash, Sin, and Ishtar. As the first triad symbolized the three divisions of the universe—the heavens, earth, and the watery element—so the second represented the three great forces of nature: The sun, the moon, and the life-giving power. In addition, at times Ishtar also appears in hymns and myths as the general personification of nature and fertility. A seventh great Sumerian deity, the mother goddess Ninhursag/Ninmah, seems to have declined in popularity as Ishtar's popularity increased.

- We are told about two different triads!

- One expressing a geographical division between heavens, earth and watery expanse!

- Another one, representing the three great forces of nature: The sun, the moon, and the life-giving power.

 

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21) Mesopotamian Religion​

Astral theology​

Astral theology served as the theoretical substratum of the Babylonian religion, and was equally pronounced in the religious system of Assyria. The essential feature of this astral theology is the assumption of a close link between the movements going on in the heavens and occurrences on earth. This led to identifying the gods and goddesses with heavenly bodies and to assigning the seats of all the deities in the heavens. Marduk, the supreme deity, was portrayed as the one who set the celestial bodies in their places and ruled over them all.

- Astral theology showed a close link between the movements going on in the heavens and occurrences on earth!

- Gods and goddesses were identified with heavenly bodies!